Viking Language, Runes, and Poetry:
expressing thoughts in the Viking age

Throughout this article, we will return many times to the power of words in Viking society, and the four facets of Óðinn. We will look at: language, the spoken words of the Viking people; runes; the written words of the Viking people, but also much more; poetry, the means by which longer thoughts were preserved in time and conveyed from person-to-person and from land-to-land; and manuscripts, the means by which these thoughts were preserved after the close of the Viking age so today we moderns can read and understand the thoughts of the Viking people.

Language

A study of the language bears witness to the conflicts of the Viking age, such as in personal names, such as Brandr (sword), Geir (spear) or Hjördís (female spirit of the sword). Personal names also inform us about the beliefs in animism in the culture - that creatures have a spiritual existence, and that there is something to be gained by the association with the animal, such as having the animal as one's name. Examples include: Björn (bear, connected with the strength of a bear), Refr (fox, and the slyness of a fox), and Hrafn (raven, and the knowledge of a raven).

The language was used to differentiate "us" from "them" in the lands where it was spoken. Different laws applied to people able to speak the language than for foreigners who could not speak it (Grágás K.97). Dönsk tunga was used not only to refer to the language but also to refer to the Viking lands - the lands where the Common Scandinavian language was spoken (Skáldskaparmál 43).

A distinguishing feature of Old Norse compared to a more familiar language such as modern English is that the Old Norse language is highly inflected: the form of a word changes with its use in a sentence. As a result, the order of the words in the sentence need not be fixed. Instead of the usual subject-verb-object order of English, the word order can be varied without affecting the ability to understand the meaning, since the form of each word shows its place in the sentence. This flexibility allows for the incredibly complex sentence structure essential to the art of poetry, as we will discuss later in this article.

The language uses compound words, formed by joining words to create a new word. It often is possible to gain insight into the meaning of a compound word by studying the meaning of the words that make up the compound. An example is orðstírr, a concept discussed earlier. The usual English translation is prestige, which fails to capture the essence. The compound words are word-glory, which far more accurately convey the meaning. Orðstírr is the eternal part of a man: the state of being where people talk about you and speak your name, even after your death.

After the end of the Viking era, the Scandinavian languages continued to diverge from one another, becoming for example, Old Norwegian, or Old Icelandic, with the language in each land and settlement different from the others. During the centuries when most of the medieval Icelandic manuscripts were being written, Old Icelandic was used in Iceland, not far removed from the Old Norse language of the Viking age.

In the centuries after this period, all the Scandinavian languages continued to evolve and mutate, simplifying and streamlining the language and removing many of the inflections of the words. The notable exception was Icelandic. Icelanders continued to read the sagas and other material in the ancient manuscripts. When it was noticed that language had started to drift away from the language of the written materials, intentional language reforms were made to bring the Icelandic language back to ancient language of the sagas.

Runes

Old Norse was the spoken language of the Vikings. Runes were the system they used for recording their words on physical media - the writing system of the Vikings and other Germanic people. Yet the runes are so much more, as we will discuss in this article. Being literate in the runes was a gateway to knowledge. The runes were used for recording knowledge in written, permanent form. Spoken words had power in Viking society, and runes made that power more permanent and longer-lasting. The runes were used for magic and other paranormal activities, including providing protection against enemies and supernatural forces, and for making the future more in line with one's desires, such as gaining the love interest of a woman.

The word for rune, rún, has the meaning of secret lore. This etymology helps us understand the secret aspects of runes in Viking society and the ability of runes to hold hidden messages and magic, in addition to their being a straight-forward alphabet for writing easily interpreted messages. With that understanding, we see that magic was so real and important, but at the same time so mundane, that it was part of the writing system, and that knowing how to read and write was valued. It was not merely about getting a message across. Knowing how to read and write was associated with having control over the supernatural and defending against supernatural attacks.

Viking people were held accountable for their spoken word. Words were not merely sounds emanating from the human mouth; they carried power and responsibility. Runes allowed words, along with their power, to be transmitted without the originator having to be present. Additionally, runes gave permanence to those words and the power they conveyed. An idea was fixed when written in runes.

Interpreting the runes is not always straight-forward, as we will discuss below. Thus, runes were, in a way, a code to be cracked in a manner not dissimilar to poetry. Both seem to reflect the apparent desire amongst Viking people to work out a puzzle and to demonstrate skill and knowledge.

In this article, we refer to runic inscriptions by their designation in the Scandinavian Runic Text Database. For example, the Fraði stone is designated DR 216. The database contains a wealth of information about the corpus of runic inscriptions all across the northern lands, including interpretations in Old Norse and, in most cases, translations into English. A user-friendly front-end for the database is available at Rundata-net.

Rígsþula tells of the origin of the three classes of Viking society, as discussed in the article on classes. Konr ungr, the future king and the son of Jarl, the progenitor of the leading class, is said to know runes, including the runes of life and eternity, and to have discussed runes with Rígr, thought to be the god Heimdallr in disguise (Rígsþula 44, 46).

The Old Norse word for rune is rún, an ancient word which may be based on the lost verb rúna, meaning to enquire. The word is connected to mystery and secret lore. The etymology suggests that the runes were more than merely a written character for recording words — that they were more than just the futhark, the "alphabet" of the Viking language.

The futhark is the name given to the glyphs (symbols) used for writing in runes, and the name is taken from the sounds associated with the first six glyphs: f, u, th, a, r, and k, in much the same way that the word alphabet is taken from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet (alpha and beta). The earliest futhark, which greatly predates the Viking age, used 24 glyphs. One glyph corresponded to one sound in the Proto-Scandinavian language of the time.

Prior to the start of the Viking age, major changes took place in the language that became the Old Norse language of the Vikings, and accordingly, there were changes in the futhark needed to represent that language. The number of glyphs was reduced to just 16, and the futhark was simplified. However, the change meant that one glyph now represented several possible sounds, and one sound might be represented with several different glyphs, complicating the interpretation of the runes.

The younger futhark. The upper-case R is used to distinguish a hard R sound from the softer r sound. The ã is used to represent a nasalized "a", and also represented an "o" sound.

It is this futhark that was used during the Viking age, often called the younger futhark to distinguish it from the earlier elder futhark predating the Viking age. The glyphs making up the futhark consisted of vertical lines (staves) combined with diagonal branches (twigs). Since they were made up only of straight lines, these glyphs were easy to carve into the materials readily available for runic inscriptions, such as stone, wood, or bone. Additionally, they had no horizontal lines that might be confused with the woodgrain when carved into wood.

The futhark was divided up into three ætt (families) of 6, 5, and 5 glyphs, indicated by a space between glyphs in the illustration. These divisions will become important when we talk about cryptic runes later in the article.

The futhark had numerous variations. The variation more commonly used in Denmark is shown in the illustration. Norway and Sweden more often used the short-twig variation, in which some of the diagonal twigs were shortened or deleted. Other variations were also used.

Additionally, the futhark was altered to meet the needs of the local language when used in other lands. Inscriptions in Anglo-Saxon variant and Frisian variants of the futhark have survived.

Each glyph in the futhark had a name, a word usually starting with the sound the glyph represented. The names were meaningful, and in runic inscriptions, the glyph alone might stand in for the word making up its name. For example, the first glyph (which has the sound of "f") was called fé meaning wealth, and came to represent money, prosperity, and power.

Rune carvers likely desired to keep their inscriptions short, presumably because of the time and effort needed to carve them into the material. Several means were used to compress the runes. Virtually all doubled letters were dropped; if a word ended in the same sound as the first sound in the next word, only one glyph was used. In addition, abbreviations were used for commonly written phrases. Many runic inscriptions name the person who carved the runes, reist rúnar in the old language, which was often expressed with two "R" glyphs. There were rarely any word breaks; at best, some inscriptions placed dots between words indicating the breaks.

Runes were used in a number of ways in Viking-age society. The first is for simple communication and recording of thoughts in the way that we moderns use the alphabet today. The difference is that in the Viking age, runes were used only for short messages: perhaps the equivalent of Post-It notes today. The longest surviving inscription is equivalent to about one verse of poetry. Longer thoughts were preserved in poetry and conveyed orally, discussed later in this article.

Everything was in place for recording longer messages in runes, but the Viking-age people apparently did not see a need that wasn't already met by using poetry. Poetry was thought to be a reliable way to remember long thoughts, due to the complexity and artistry of the verses. An error in recalling a verse would be clear because some element of the complex poetic structure would fail to work.

This wide range of every-day messages and thoughts give a vivid picture of the human side of life in the Viking age. Additionally, the evidence points to widespread literacy in the Viking age. These rune sticks do not seem like something reserved for the elite, but rather the work-a-day messages, musings, and ramblings of people conducting their business, living their lives, finding their loves, and just being human.

There are examples of runic messages whose meaning is hidden in one form or another. Some are written with runic characters, but are coded in some way. Others are written in characters not in the futhark.

Why were some thoughts recorded in cryptic runes? There is no clear answer. It has been suggested that doing so might limit understanding of the message only to a small group of people in the know. This explanation seems unlikely, since some of the coding methods are so easy to decode. Perhaps the use of cryptic runes highlighted the portion of the text that is encoded. Or perhaps the cryptic runes showcased the skill of the rune-carver. This last explanation probably holds the most merit, since it connects with showcasing one's skill and knowledge in arts related to Óðinn, who worked and sacrificed to gain the knowledge of magic, runes, and poetry.

Some of the ways that meaning was encoded using glyphs from the futhark include using abbreviations, as discussed earlier. Sometimes, a simple substitution cypher was used, with each glyph replaced by the next glyph in the futhark, or the previous glyph. Sometimes a portion of the glyphs were written in backwards order. And in a few cases, glyphs from the elder futhark were substituted for glyphs from the younger futhark generally in use during the Viking age.

Cryptic runes were also written using glyphs other than the futhark. In some cases, the glyphs used look like the futhark, but aren't, and it is only due to the formulaic nature of the runic inscription that the code can be cracked. An example is seen in the runic graffiti at the burial cairn at Meashowe in the Orkneys.

Another form of cryptic rune encodes uses groups of lines or twigs in a series of similar figures. Each figure has two groups of twigs. The number of twigs in the first group represents in which of the three ætt (grouping of runes within the futhark) the rune appears, and the number of twigs in the second indicates which rune in the grouping is meant.

Some of the cryptic runes clearly contain intelligible messages. When the code is cracked, the pattern of a cryptic rune is recognizable and is easy to read. When the code isn't cracked, it is not always possible to tell whether there is intelligence in the glyphs or not. Perhaps the glyphs are just doodling or decorations or illiteracy on the part of the carver. It is not always easy to tell.

This power of runes to convey (or misconvey) the magic is illustrated in Egils saga, when Egill was asked to help an ill woman. She had been treated by a neighbor who carved some runes on a whalebone to help her. Egill found the runes were faulty, causing her continued illness. Egill said, "No man should carve runes unless he can read them well." (Egils saga, ch.73) The same message is found inscribed on a rune stick (N A142).

When runes are used for foretelling the future, the word used is spánn (Ynglinga saga, ch.38). The word also means a chip or a shaving. Tacitus, writing in the first century, describes Germanic tribes making predictions by throwing cut-up sticks marked in some fashion. Hávamál adds that "what you ask of the runes is divinely descended (reginkunnr)," suggesting this foretelling of the future is connected with the gods (Hávamál 80). Not surprisingly, the Christian section of the later law codes forbids spánn, along with incantation and wicked sorcery (Gulaþingslög, 28).

In modern times, runes have been connected to occultism in ways not supported by any available evidence. Even more regrettably, runes have been appropriated and distorted by groups to help them spread hateful ideologies. There is simply no evidence that these practices and these connections have anything to do with the use of runes in the Viking age, and these regrettable practices degrade the memory of the ancient Viking culture, disrespecting it by bringing it down to a terrible place.

Some runic inscriptions contain verses or half-verses of poetry, notably on some memorial stones. The runic poetry is similar to skaldic poetry (discussed in the next section on poetry) in that it is often comprised of poems of praise. Yet runic poetry is more like eddic poetry in character; the form and artistry is not as complex as skaldic poetry. Often, the poetic form is so simple that it can be hard to distinguish runic poetry from straight prose. Some rune-carvers have skáld (poet) as their nickname, such as Grímr skáld (U 951) and Þorbjörn skáld (U 29), yet none of the inscriptions carved by men with this nickname contain verse.

The runes were the "alphabet" of the Viking people, but they were also much more. They were one of the four facets of Óðinn. Runes were used both for the mundane, and for the magical and paranormal. They were used for transferring and preserving words, and for hiding words in secret ways, and for conveying the words in magical spells. In the Viking age, words had power and weight, and putting words in runes made them permanent and amplified their power, in much the same way as putting the words into verse, as we will see in the next section.

Poetry

As discussed earlier, Óðinn was closely associated with the four facets, striving to increase his skills and sacrificing himself to acquire them. The story of how Óðinn gained skill in the art of poetry and how he occasionally shared that art with humans is told in a long tale (Skáldskaparmál, G57-G58, Hávamál, 104-110), which is summarized in an article in the mythology section of the Hurstwic site.

The mead, called Suttungsmjöðr (Sutting's mead), is often called the mead of poetry, but poetry is only one aspect of the drink. It also relates to knowledge, made from the blood of Kvasir, a man famed for his knowledge. The origin of the mead highlights the connection between poetry and knowledge.

Poetry was the way that thoughts were remembered in the Viking age. A thought, set to verse, could be easily remembered and transmitted orally from one person to the next reciting the verse, resulting in the spoken word traveling far and having a long life. This permanence could benefit a man if the words expressed praise, but words of disrespect, or similar níð were devastating. A libelous or scandalous verse could spread far and be long remembered, carrying níð that ruined a man's reputation, bringing him the kind of orðstírr no man wanted. Poetry served to amplify the strength of the spoken word.

The strength of words in verse is also illustrated in the law codes, which prohibit composing or reciting even a half-stanza of poetry that has defamation in it (Grágás K238). Some forms of this kind of verse gave the victim the right to kill in retaliation.

In the old language, a number of words are related to poetry. The verbs emphasize the verbal nature of poetry. The verbs used to describe the creation and recitation of poetry include: kveða (to say), cognate with the English verb to quote, and also having the meaning of creating a verse; segja (to say or to report), an ancient word in virtually all the Germanic languages; syngja meaning to ring or to clash (such as weapons) or to whistle (such as the wind) or to sing (such as a tune) or to chant; and yrkja (to work) cognate with the English word to work or to wrought, with multiple meanings, including the meaning of composing poetry.

The general word for poetry is kvæði. In addition, there are a number of words for specific types of poetry: drápa (a heroic poem of praise); vísa (a verse or stanza); ljóð (a short or simple poem, sometimes called a lay or a ditty); kviða (an epic poem or ballad); and mál, a word with many meanings, including poems in the form of a dialog, such as Hávamál (Sayings of the High One). The word bragr, meaning poetry, is derived from the name Bragi, the god of poetry. In addition to specifying the general nature of the poetry, some of these words reference types having more specific characteristics. For instance, a drápa is a poem made up of a number of stanzas with a recurring refrain.

Other words related to poetry include skáld (poet), a word used in many compound words related to poets and poetry, such as skaldskap, which means poetry, but the meaning has several senses. The usual sense is good poetry, but the more ancient sense is libelous poetry, a sense preserved in the law code (Grágás K238) and in compound words such as skáldfífl (a libeler) and skáldstöng (a libel pole). The origin of skáld is unclear, but may relate to the ancient Germanic word skeldan meaning to scold, or possibly to skálda meaning pole. As discussed earlier, poles were used for delivering curses carved in runes (níðstöng) as well as for libelous poetry (skáldstöng), an act that was prohibited in Grágás (K237) and in later law codes (Kristinn réttr Sverris, 79).

Both praiseful and libelous forms of poetry were used by Viking-age poets. On one hand, the king's skald created poems of praise to memorialize the king's accomplishments. On the other, numerous poets used verse to deliver insults intended to knock someone down a notch or two. During his duel with Ljótr, Egill spoke several verses of trash talk about his opponent, calling him afraid: "Prepare for a fight; I give him no hope of mercy" (Egils saga, ch.65). And in his exchange of verses with his rival Björn, Þórðr held nothing back, saying "the dolt, jaws dripping, always dazed by every slander, stripped of sense and reason stays a useless loser" (Bjarnar saga, ch.29).

Snorri Sturluson, the medieval author of a poetry textbook, teaches that poetry has two aspects: language and verse-form (Skáldskaparmál 1). In addition to plain language, poetry uses word substitutions and artistically created phrases that stand in for words. Poetry also uses verse forms with set patterns of alliteration, rhythm, and internal rhyme. Some examples of verse forms include dróttkvætt (court meter), ljóðaháttr (song form), and fornyrðislag (old story meter).

Broadly speaking, there were two general forms of poetry in the Viking age: eddic poetry and skaldic poetry. Some add a third form, runic poetry, the poetry used for many runic inscriptions which are simple in form. As with most generalizations, this division is oversimplified.

Virtually all the surviving poetry we have comes from medieval Icelandic manuscripts that postdate the Viking age. Some scholars speculate that at least some of those written verses were created for the manuscripts. Yet there is also evidence that at least some of the poetry in these manuscripts may be faithfully reproduced from the Viking age. The nature of Viking poetry is such that it seems possible that it was faithfully transmitted through the centuries in oral retellings, as we will discuss later. Additionally, the surviving verses on runic inscriptions from the Viking age, despite being short and simple, have significant overlap with the poetry in the manuscripts, adding further weight to the idea that the material was preserved with some fidelity.

Rune poems typically were inscribed on monuments and serve to praise an individual. They are brief and usually have a simple meter and style.

The skaldic poems have complicated meters, strict patterns of alliteration, and ornate metaphoric language, with wordplay to delight the sophisticated listener. The poems usually celebrate the exploits of a particular king, leader, or heroic man. These poems were thought to be reliable testimony to the events, even though (in most cases) they weren't committed to writing for centuries after their composition. This point-of-view is clearly stated by Snorri: "And we have set great store in what is said in these poems, which were recited in front of the kings themselves or their sons. We take as true everything that one finds in these poems about expeditions and battles." (Heimskringla Prologus). Since exaggeration was considered to be mockery, and mockery was a lethal insult, it was expected that the poets retold the events faithfully in their verse to the kings and their sons.

The form of poetry is complicated beyond the wordplay of the kennings. The need to fit strict rules of alliteration and rhyming and rhythm result in verses in which multiple ideas are being formed simultaneously. Because Old Norse is a highly inflected language (word forms change depending on the usage of the word in a sentence), it's possible to jumble the word order yet retain the meaning of a sentence. Indeed, some skaldic verses develop multiple sentences simultaneously. A more detailed explanation of the complexities of skaldic poetry is presented in a separate article.

Because of its complexity and wordplay, some have wondered whether skaldic poetry could be understood by a listener hearing a verse for the first time. There are examples in the literary sources that support the belief that the poems were a puzzle to be solved. Gísli spoke a verse in which he took credit for the killing of Þorgrímr. The verse was overheard by Þórdís, the sister of Gísli and the wife of Þorgrímr. It wasn't until after she returned home and pondered on the verse that she worked out its meaning (Gísla saga, ch.18).

Additionally, in an oral culture, it would be important to recall poetry without error. Because of the complexities of Norse verse, a defect in a recalled verse would be immediately apparent, since the rhyme, rhythm, or alliteration would no longer work. Any erroneous substitution would stand out. Thus, the complexity of the verse acted as a mnemonic aid to help recall the verse and to identify errors. This built-in error detection was one of the reasons that information conveyed by poetry during the Viking age was thought to be more reliable than information in prose.

In the Viking age, poetry served many purposes, and thus poets were historians, journalists, reference librarians, entertainers, and more. By preserving a thought in verse, it was made permanent. Preserving a man's name and deeds in verse enhanced his orðstírr; people were more likely to think of him and speak his name when that name was recorded in verse. Verse maintained or elevated one's rank in society by preserving one's accomplishments and one's family genealogy.

News of important events was disseminated with poetry. In large-scale battles, kings placed their poets in a skjaldborg (shield castle) so they could observe the battle safely at close range and then compose poetry to preserve the memory of the event and the heroic deeds performed there (Óláfs saga helga, ch.206).

Since memories of important events and important people were preserved in verse, poets were the connection to that saved knowledge. In the days before books and before the internet, a poet with a repertoire of poems was the equivalent of a modern-day research librarian, able to provide answers to questions on a variety of topics. The tight connection between poetry and knowledge extends from the myth of the mead of poetry (created from the blood of a wise man and stolen by the god who seeks knowledge in all forms) through to the everyday use of verses in the Viking age.

Poetry, like runes, could convey magic or níð (described earlier) and made it more long-lasting. A spoken insult was bad, but a spoken insult put into verse form was so bad as to be in violation of the law codes and subject to instant lethal revenge.

Poetry was a way to test a man and for one to show one's place in society. As discussed in the article on games, competition in poetry was a sport, and engaging someone in a poetry competition gave one insight into the kind of man one was dealing with. Was he clever, able to create his own ingenious verses, and also to solve the puzzle of a verse from his competitor? How did he react to a verse? Was he able to stay composed and competitive after taking a punch to the head in verse? Showing skill in poetry in these competitions elevated a man. Enemies could become friends when they mutually admired each other's skill in poetry, as did Grettir and the man whose horse he stole when the two finally met (Grettis saga, ch.47).

Poets were valued in Viking society. Through their verse, they fixed and made memories permanent, so they could be preserved and disseminated throughout the Viking lands. A man's orðstírr, the goal of any drengr, was enhanced by having his name and deeds preserved in verse. Thus, a poet was ranked high in Viking society, as described in the article on the structure of Viking society.

A good poet not only conferred orðstírr on the subjects of his poems; he also added to his own orðstírr. A large number of the surviving skaldic verses are attributed to named poets; we still speak their names one thousand years after they composed their verse.

Again and again, we see four facets associated with Óðinn: poetry; runes, magic; and knowledge. They show the importance and power of words in Viking society. Words had consequences, and one could not hide from the consequences of words spoken, especially when preserved in poetry or runes.

This connection to Óðinn is perhaps best seen in the poem Sonatorrek, attributed in the saga to the poet-warrior-raider Egill Skallagrímsson. His life story, told in Egils saga, demonstrates to us that he was a powerful fighter, brutal in battle. Yet his poetry shows us he was no brute.

And that is the paradox that is Viking poetry. So many aspects of their society are touched by the violence that seem to infuse every part of the life of a Viking. Yet at the same time, these people prized the emotional and creative art called poetry. Egill makes that clear in his poem. On one hand, Egill blames Óðinn for taking away his son and castigates him for causing the loss. Yet on the other hand, Egill realizes Óðinn has given him two valuable gifts: the gift of poetry, and the gift of being able to discern his true enemies, which presumably, gave Egill his edge in battle. With this balancing of the ledger, Egill closes the poem, accepting his fate.

The Manuscripts

Books were written to commemorate the exploits of kings or other great leaders. Some of these books were in the form of histories, such as Heimskringla, a history of the kings of Norway. Others described contemporary events, such as Sturlunga saga, a compilation of sagas describing the events in the turbulent times when the sons of Sturla Þórðarson were changing the political landscape of the Iceland, written by people who were often eyewitnesses to the events they describe, and sometimes even participants in the events.

Icelanders also wrote down the stories of their ancestors in the Viking age. These Íslendingasögur (Sagas of Icelanders, also called family sagas) were a unique and new form of story-telling unlike anything that preceded them. They are clearly based on Iceland's vibrant oral story-telling tradition.

Most of these sagas are thought to have been composed between 1200 and 1400. These stories tell of the tales of farmers and chieftains living in Iceland from the 9th through the 12th century. Many of the sagas follow families for generation after generation, from the settlement era to the commonwealth period in Iceland's history. The stories are distinctive in that they tell heroic tales not about heroes, but about just plain folks: the early Icelanders.

Yet, they are not histories; they are distorted by the time that separates the events depicted and the writing of the stories. Nonetheless, there is clearly a considerable body of genuine historical information imbedded in these texts, and they remain one of the most important reference sources for understanding not only saga-age Iceland, but also the broader Viking age in Northern Europe.

We also have other written material from Iceland, such as the Fornaldarsögur (legendary sagas) about heroes from long ago times and often far-away lands. Ancient poetry about heroes and gods was compiled into the Eddukvæði (Poetic Edda).

The book not only provides us with a unique overview of the Norse mythology, but Snorri quotes excerpts from poems and stories as examples of proper form and technique. In most cases, the full works are now lost, so the quotes from Snorra edda are the only way we have any knowledge of these stories.

None of the surviving manuscripts represent the "original" version of the stories as set down by the first author. All the surviving manuscripts date from well after the time the stories were written down. Over the centuries, the original manuscripts of the old stories were copied, transcribed, combined, interpolated, and edited. Material was deleted and new material written to bridge the gap. In some cases, the original stories may have been distorted. Both early and late manuscripts survive for some stories, and occasionally, the differences are quite significant.

When Scandinavian nationalism movements began to grow in the early modern period, scholars realized that the best available written materials on the early history of Scandinavian lands were those created by Icelanders a few centuries earlier. Yet while the Scandinavians could no longer read that language, Icelanders could. Their ability to read the old manuscripts was instrumental in preserving the old manuscripts.

In addition to the Icelandic material, we also have material from other Nordic lands, such the chronicle composed by Adam of Bremen Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae Pontificum, written around 1075. Saxo Grammaticus wrote a history of the kings of Denmark, Gesta Danorum, created at the end of the 12th century. We have late law codes, such as Gulaþingslög and Frostaþingslög both from Norway in the 13th century. Some of the ancient heroic Germanic poems survive in other lands, such as Beowulf, written in Old English, and Waltharius, written in Latin.

Manuscripts, this new way of preserving knowledge and thoughts, were also used after the Viking age to record knowledge of the last facet of Óðinn: magic. Medieval grimoires were textbooks of magic spells and procedures, created to preserve the knowledge of magic. A notable example mentioned numerous times in legend and folklore is Rauðskinna, buried with its author Gottskálk grimmi Nikulásson, the bishop of Hólar.

Although the means of preserving thoughts in manuscript form did not arrive in Viking lands until near the end of the Viking age, it remains perhaps our most important source of knowledge about Viking-age people and their society. Without these manuscripts, we would know almost nothing about their myths, their heroes, their gods, their beliefs, their laws, their accomplishments, or their daily lives.

Summary

Viking-age people spoke the language we commonly call Old Norse. In their society, spoken words carried power and consequences. The knowledge and power conveyed by those words was fixed when they were inscribed in runes or composed into poetry. Runes and poetry allowed the knowledge and power of words to disseminate far and wide and echo for centuries.

These means of expressing, conveying, and preserving thoughts seem to be closely tied to Óðinn, the highest of the gods. The four facets of Óðinn's skills include knowledge, poetry, runes, and magic, all aspects of gathering and controlling knowledge in the Viking age, key parts of life in Viking-age society.

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