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During the Viking age, helmets were typically fairly simple: a bowl with a prominent nose guard, as shown in the photo of a reproduction helmet to the right. Contrary to popular belief, there is little evidence that Viking-age helmets ever had horns.

Both before and after the Viking era, helmet bowls were made from one piece of iron, hammered into shape (such as the reproduction Norman helm shown to the left). However, during the Viking era, helmets typically were made from several pieces of iron riveted together (right), called a spangenhelm style of helm. It's easier to make a helmet this way, requiring less labor, which may be why it was used. It is possible that Viking-age smiths were incapable of making a single piece of iron large enough to create the bowl for a helmet, due to the limitations of the bog iron widely used in the Viking age.

The spangenhelm used a single iron band that circled the head around the brow, riveted to two more iron bands that crossed at the top of the head. The four openings were filled with riveted iron plates (right) to create the bowl. In some cases, hard leather may have been used to fill the four openings, rather than iron, to reduce cost, as seen in the replica shown to the left. The nose guard was riveted to the brow. At first glance, the nose guard looks awkward and nearly useless, but I can attest to its usefulness; it's prevented my nose from being broken at least once.

Some form of chin fastening is required. Without it, the helmet simply falls off in a fight. Unfortunately, there's little evidence for chin straps. There's no convincing archaeological evidence and little pictorial evidence (although the rider from the Bayeux tapestry shown to the left might arguably have a chin strap).

On the other hand, helmets both before and after the Viking age routinely used chin straps. From Grágás, the medieval Icelandic lawbook, we know that some people wore hats with chin straps, since there are laws regarding them.

Other styles of helmets have been found. The well known helmet (left) found at Gjermundbu in Norway has a spectacle-like covering for the face. A modern reproduction with a similar style is shown to the right. The spectacle style is somewhat frightening both for someone on the outside looking in, and for someone on the inside looking out.

From the outside, it presents a frightening visage to the opponent, since the face is covered and made anonymous. But it's even more scary from the inside, since the spectacles catch incoming spear tips and sword points and guide them right into the wearer's eyes. A near miss is converted into a "bullseye" by the eye openings.

Some helmets from the period had mail curtains or solid plates to provide additional protection. The reproduction helmet shown to the left has mail on the neck and solid cheek plates. These defenses provide significant protection against cuts to vulnerable parts of the head and neck. Other forms of solid cheek and neck protection may have been used as well.

The additional helmet defenses might not have been helpful in every case. Chapter 40 of Grettis saga tells of Grettir's fight with Snækollr, a berserk. Snækollr wore a helmet with the cheek-guards undone. Grettir walked up to Snækollr, who sat on his horse and immediately kicked the bottom of Snækoll's shield up into his mouth, ripping open Snækoll's face. Grettir grabbed Snækoll's helmet with his left hand and pulled him from his horse while cutting off Snækoll's head with the sax in his right hand. Although the saga author doesn't specify where Grettir grabbed the helmet, those loose, dangling check-guards would have made a convenient handle.

Even without cheek-guards, a helmet can be used to manipulate an opponent's head to control him (right). A speculative reconstruction of this move is shown in this combat demo video, part of a longer fight.

The Gjermundbu helmet has a spike at the crest. Although it's not visible in the photograph of the historical artifact above, the spike is similar to that of the reproduction helmet shown here. The spike turns a simple head butt into a nasty piece of work.

The classic example from the sagas of a fighter killed before he could put on his helmet occurs in Brennu-Njáls saga (chapter 92). Þráinn and his men, while traveling across the frozen Markarfljót river (shown to the right as it appears today), saw an imminent ambush from Njál's sons (who were lying in wait on Rauðuskríður, the hill on the far side of the river). Inexplicably, Þráinn took off his helmet and cloak. Before he could put his helmet back on, Skarphéðinn Njálsson seized the initiative and slid across the ice to drive an axe though Þráin's skull.

Few Viking helmets have survived. The Gjermundbu helmet shown above is the only more-or-less complete Viking-age helmet from the Viking lands. Most Viking helmets survive only as fragments. There are, however, surviving helmets contemporary with the Vikings found in lands to the east, as well as helmets from Scandinavia that substantially predate the Viking age, such as the 7th century Valsgärde helmet shown to the left.